Study of cognitive linguistics

Study of cognitive linguistics Before we go to cognitive linguistics, we should answer some questions, which are very important to those who make a study of linguistics. Everybody knows that there are many rules in language. à ¥Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ «, for example, is used to show our warmth to people: à ¥Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ «Ãƒ ¨Ã‚ ¯Ã‚ ·Ãƒ ¨Ã‚ ¿Ã¢â‚¬ º, à ¥Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ «Ãƒ ¨Ã‚ ¯Ã‚ ·Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ Ã‚ , à ¥Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ «Ãƒ ¥- Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ Ã‚ ¯Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ °Ã‚ ´, à ¥Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ «Ãƒ ¥- Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ Ã‚ ¯Ãƒ ¨Ã…’ ¶, à ¥Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ «Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ Ã†â€™Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã‚ ªÃƒ ¨Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ã‚ ¹Ãƒ ¦Ã… ¾Ã…“à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ However, à ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ ¢is used to indicate goodbye: à ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ ¢Ãƒ ¨Ã‚ µÃ‚ °, à ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ ¢Ãƒ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ ¢Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ Ã†â€™, à ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ ¢Ãƒ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ ¢Ãƒ ¥- , à ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ ¢Ãƒ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ ¢Ãƒ ¨Ã‚ Ã…  , à ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ ¢Ãƒ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ ¢Ãƒ ¥Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¾(Cantonese), à ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ ¢Ãƒ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ ¢Ãƒ ¥Ã… ½Ã¢â‚¬ ¹(Cantonese, said to someone who goes cycling), etc. Because these rules in Chinese do not exist in English, we cannot say *Come in quickly, *Sit down quickly, or *Walk s lowly. Rules like this are concerned with use of words. At the same time, there are rules in grammar. In English, for example, I is followed by am, and you by are, and he by is. 1) Are such rules in language formed gradually through everyday use or prescribed by linguists? (It is very important for us to answer such questions correctly before we are engaged in making a study of linguistics.) 2) All language users can speak their mother tongue correctly, fluently and appropriately. An illiterate woman in Guangzhou, for example, can speak Cantonese correctly, fluently and appropriately. Do you think she knows Cantonese grammar? 3) Some people, even some university teachers say that many great scholars have made a lot of research and published many books on linguistics and grammar. These people think that the famous scholars have solved all language problems and theres nothing left for us to make a study. Whats your opinion about this? 4) Language is always changing. It is one of the properties of language. Do you think it is possible to avoid its change or it is necessary to do so? 5) There are many linguistic schools studying language in the world. Can you explain why there are so many schools? (Cognitive linguistics is one of the so many schools. I dont know if you are interested in it or not. For me, I firmly believe it and also interested in it, because it can explain many phenomena in language. The explanations from the perspective of cognitive linguistics help us know about how language is formed and why it is formed in this way instead of the other way. Most importantly, such explanations can help both teachers teach foreign languages and learners learn them effectively.) 6) Where is meaning? In order to understand these sentences we must call upon our knowledge about the world, which does not reside in the sentences or in any of the words of the sentences. (Scollon Scollon 2000: 7) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦we tend to look for meaning in words themselves, but we are incorrect if we think that words possess meaning. It is more accurate to say that people possess meaning and that words elicit these meanings. (Samovar et al 2000: 123) Language does not itself do the cognitive building-it just give us minimal, but sufficient, clues for finding the domains and principles appropriate for building in a given situation. Once these clues are combined with already existing configurations, available cognitive principles, and background framing, the appropriate construction can take place, and the result far exceeds any overt explicit information. This fundamental property of language is counterintuitive: In our folk theory, it is the words that carry the meaning: We say what we mean, we put meaning into words, and so on. The difference between the folk-theoretic conception and the actual (backstage) reality goes unnoticed for very interesting reasons. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ We notice only the tip of the iceberg-the words-and we attribute all the rest to common sense. (Fauconnier 1994: xviii) Language does not carry meaning, it guides it. As Mark Turner felicitously put it: Expressions do not mean; they are prompts for us to construct meanings by working with processes we already know. In no sense is the meaning of (an) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ utterance right there in the words. When we understand an utterance, we in no sense are understanding just what the words say; the words themselves say nothing independent of the richly detailed knowledge and powerful cognitive processes we bring to bear (Turner 1991: 206) Language, as we use it, is but the tip of the iceberg of cognitive construction. As discourse unfolds, much is going on behind the scenes: New domains appear, links are forged, abstract mappings operate, internal structure emerges and spreads, viewpoint and focus keep shifting. Everyday talk and commonsense reasoning are supported by invisible, highly (p. xxii) abstract, mental creations, which grammar helps to guide, but does not by itself define. (Fauconnier 1994: xxiii) On this view, words do not really have meanings, nor do sentences have meanings: meanings are something that we construe, using the properties of linguistic elements as partial clues, alongside non-linguistic knowledge, information available from context, knowledge and conjectures regarding the state of mind of hearers and so on. (Croft Cruse 2004: 98) The core idea in Cognitive Linguistics is that meanings are mental entities in conceptual space. Meanings are in peoples minds. They are not independent entities in the external world, as is the case in objectivist models. The external world is only indirectly relevant in that meanings are constrained by how human beings perceive of the world. The second question concerns the relation between lexical items and meaning. Lexical items map on to concepts, and meaning is the relation between the lexical item and the domain matrix that it activates. Lexical meaning is constrained by encyclopaedic knowledge, conventionalized mappings between lexical items and concepts, conventional modes of thought in different contexts and situational frames. (à ¥Ã… ½Ã… ¸Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ ³Ã‚ ¨Ã‚ ¼Ã… ¡In cognitive approaches to meaning, all linguistic expressions are profiled according to a base (Langacker 1987a), or a frame (Fillmore (1982), an idealized cognitive model of a situation (Lakoff 1987) or a cycle of contextualization and decontextualization of word meaning based on linguistic and encyclopaedic knowledge (Warren 1999). All these constructs represent presupposed information in an expression that the speaker infers in situations. In my model the appropriate construal is employed on the basis of such knowledge. See also Croft (forthcoming) for a similar approach to verbs.) Meanings are thus not inherent in the lexical items as such, but they are evoked by lexical items. Moreover, there is no purely linguistic level of representation that is intermediate between concepts and lexical items, and there is no static one-to-one relationship between lexical items and meanings. (à ¥Ã… ½Ã… ¸Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ ³Ã‚ ¨Ã‚ ¼Ã… ¡This is the case in approaches to meaning that assume a lexicon consisting of formal features, e.g. Bierwich Schreuder (1992), Levelt (1989), Pustejovsky (1998), Borschev Partee (2001), Jackendoff (2002).) Multiple readings are natural and expected in a dynamic usage-based model. The components of the framework are shown in Figure 1. The third question concerns the dynamics of language in terms of synchronic flexibility and diachronic change. Different readings in different contexts emerge from the intention that activates the expression or the wish to interpret the expression in a relevant way in order to obtain socially viable (capable of working, functioning, or developing adequately; capable of existence and development as an independent unit) mappings between words and concepts. In other words, cognitive processes (construals) operate on the conceptual structures on all occasions of use. These operations are the source of all readings, conventional as well as ad hoc (used for specific or immediate needs) contextual readings, and possible lexical change takes place through new conventional, entrenched links between linguistic expressions and conceptual structures (Paradis 2003b). (Paradis, 2004: 53) The precise semantic contribution of any word is a function of the utterance context in which it is embedded, and, moreover, the sorts of (conceptual) knowledge these lexical entities provide access to. In other words, words dont have meanings in and of themselves. Rather meaning is a function of the utterance in which a word is embedded, and the complex processes of lexical concept integration. (Evans, 2006:492) More recently, a number of scholars have suggested that in fact word-meaning is less a discrete body of circumscribed knowledge. Rather, words serve as points of access to larger-scale encyclopaedic knowledge structures, which are potentially vast in scope as argued in detail below. On this view, words provide access to what I will refer to as a semantic potential, with different sorts of knowledge being potentially activated. (Evans, 2006: 493) One way of thinking about the meaning of words is to see them as tools for causing speakers to access specific parts of their knowledge base (Moore Carling 1982:11, quoted in Lee, 2001:5). At any given moment, individuals have a huge store of knowledge available to them (Lee, 2001:5). Meaning is not a property of utterances but a product of the interaction between an utterance and a human beings knowledge base (Lee, 2001:12). The function of the noun cat in the utterance The cat wants something to eat is to cause the addressee to home in on (meaning to find) a very specific region of that knowledge base-specifically on those neural structures that constitute her store of knowledge concerning cats in general and the family cat in particular. (Lee, 2001:5) Meaning in language can be summarized as: 1) To understand words or sentences is to call upon the knowledge about the world. 2) The knowledge does not reside in the sentences or in any of the words of the sentences. That is, words do not possess meaning. 3) People possess meaning and words as tools elicit meanings. 2. What is cognitive linguistics? 2.1 The importance of cognitive linguistics Cognitive linguistics is expected to be one of the most important approaches in the field of linguistics in the 21 century. Some linguists even say that the 21 century will belong to cognitive linguistics. Cognitive linguistics originated from America in 1970s the last century. Many linguists in China have turned to cognitive linguistics. Papers about cognitive linguistics, papers introducing cognitive linguistics and papers analyzing language structures with cognitive approaches can be found in almost every academic journal or magazine related to language study in China in recent years. If we pay little attention to this approach, we are sure to lag behind. That is why we offer you the course of cognitive linguistics. 2.2 The definition of cognitive linguistics As you know, each linguistic school has its own attitudes towards language and its own approach to language. So does cognitive linguistics. According to this textbook, cognitive linguistics is an approach to language that is based on our experience of the world and the way we perceive and conceptualize our experience of the world (p.F36). (Who would like to explain conceptualize our experience? When we say conceptualize our experience, we mean that we have the idea for our experience or that we form concepts of our experience.) 2.3 The objective of cognitive linguistics The objective of cognitive linguistics is to investigate and to study cognitive or mental structure and organization by analyzing cognitive strategies used by humans in thinking, storing information, comprehending, and producing language. (Bussmann, Hadumod. 2000. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. p.80. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press Routledge) 2.4 Two different meanings of the term cognitive linguistics It is very important to notice that cognitive linguistics has two different meanings, which come from the word cognitive. It has the following two meanings: 1) cognitive related to knowledge (This is the logical view. This view accepts logical rules and objective definitions.) 2) cognitive related to human experience based on practical and empirical knowledge.(This is the cognitive linguistics we mean. Such cognitive linguistics includes three views or approaches: the experiential view, the prominence view and the attentional view.) 3. Experiential view: Different explanations of Our car has broken down 3.1 Traditional explanation Traditionally, most teachers use the following methods in class: 1) paraphrasing the meanings of words 2) analyzing the clause pattern 3) discussing the use of the present perfect tense How do you help your students with this sentence? Talk about your teaching, please? If someone does not know the word car, the teacher just tells him that it means 4-wheeled motor vehicle. Usually the teacher takes into consideration the so-called difficult points. In this sentence, the difficult point may be the phrasal verb break down, which has at least as many as 35 meanings according to a dictionary. The first four meanings are: 1) to become separated into pieces or fragments 2) to become cracked or split 3) to give way; collapse 4) to become unusable or inoperative/stop operating or functioning e.g. The television broke down. The 4th meaning is suitable to explain the phrasal verb break down, so the teacher chooses stop operating or functioning to replace the original phrase, such as Our car has stopped operating or Our car has stopped functioning. 3.2 Explanation with the logical view (of modern linguistics) In the logical view, some objective semantic features must be found. The following are a set of objective semantic features of car: 1) inanimate 2) concrete 3) movable 4) self-propelled The meaning of car in this explanation equates objective features. This explanation seems to be cognitive, because it is related to knowledge. But it is not the cognitive linguistics we are studying. The cognitive linguistics we mean is not based on logical knowledge, but on practical and empirical knowledge. The logical view cannot explain the phrasal verb break down, because the phrase is used as a metaphor, which is excluded from the study of the logical view. 3.3 Explanation with the experiential view 1) Meaning is in our experience. a. attribute Before we explain this sentences with the experiential view, we must first pay special attention to the term attribute, which is frequently used in cognitive linguistics so it is a very important term in cognitive linguistics, especially when we explain language with the experiential view. Simply to say, attribute is characteristic of an entity (Word Web) What are the attributes of car? The answer is on P. F37, where you can see that the concept car has 9 attributes in all. Both our communal experience and personal or subjective experience are related to the word car. Of the 9 attributes, some are shared by most peoples experience and some others are very personal and subjective. The attributes of first love affair and injury are very personal and subjective. The meaning of car in this explanation is communal experience + personal (subjective) experience. These two types of experience equate attributes in all. b. Two important aspects of attributes a) Attributes are from laypersons We should notice that such attributes are collected from laypersons (common people/ persons who are not trained in linguistics) instead of dictionaries or scholars. So to a great extent, these attributes can reflect the way every language user perceives the world and interacts with it. b) Attributes help identify similar objects To every word dictionaries give definitions which are sometimes not helpful. The word car, for example, is defined as 4-wheeled motor vehicle. This definition cannot help people identify a 3-wheeled motor vehicle when they see such a vehicle for the first time. But it is obvious that attributes from laypersons can do that. People can identify it as a car because it agrees with some of the attributes. That is why the experiential view is superior to the logical view. 2) Meaning in figurative language. The original meaning for break down is fall apart, collapse. When it is used to express the event that the car suddenly stops working, it is a metaphorical use because the car does not become separated into pieces or fragments. Metaphor is no longer regarded as just a rhetorical device. In logical view, metaphor is excluded from the study of linguistics. But the fact is that metaphor is frequently used by everyone in their utterances every day. It goes without saying that heart as in Beijing is the heart of China is a metaphor. So is the eye of heaven in Sonnet 18 by Shakespeare. Everybody can identify this kind of metaphor. But metaphor in cognitive linguistics is in a much broader sense. The following are also examples of metaphor: (1) You appear at the head of the list. (2) the leg of a table (3) He got into trouble yesterday. In literature, get into trouble is no metaphor at all, but in cognitive linguistics it is because trouble is regarded as a container. Actually, people tend to make use of metaphor. In a metaphorical way it is easier to express abstract ideas or unfamiliar things. So concrete concepts are used to express abstract concepts and familiar things are used to indicate unfamiliar things. We can say, metaphor is pervasive in language, that is to say, figurative language is everywhere in language. If a linguistic theory pays no attention to metaphor or figurative language, such a theory can be said not to be immature. A good linguistic theory should explain every phenomenon in language. Cognitive linguistics is such a linguistic theory which makes a study of every aspect of meanings in language. 4. Prominence view The prominence view concerns the selection and arrangement of the information that is expressed. It is actually an explanation of how the information in a clause is selected and arranged. Compare the following pairs of examples: (4) a. The garden is swarming with bees. b. Bees are swarming in the garden. In traditional grammar, the two sentences are regarded as the same in meaning. But in fact they do not mean the same because prominence in the sentences are different. (4a) means that there are bees everywhere in the garden, but (4b) means that there are bees in part of the garden. 5. Attentional view The attentional view is an approach based on the assumption that what we actually express reflects which parts of an event attract our attention (p. F39). That is, an utterance reflects what is paid attention to. In language the same event can be expressed in different ways because of our different attentions. Take learn and teach for example: (5) a. Xiao Li learned English from Mr. Smith. b. Mr. Smith taught Xiao Li English. When the speakers attention is on Xiao Li, he uses the first sentence, but when his attention is on Mr. Smith, he uses the second one. In paraphrase, we usually tell the students that the two sentences are in the same meaning, but in the attentional view, their meanings are in fact different. 6. The contents of this book 1) This book contains six chapters, with Chapters 1, 2, 3 introducing the experiential view, Chapter 4 dealing with the prominence view, Chapter 5 discussing the attentional view and Chapter 6 briefing iconicity, grammaticalization, lexical change and language teaching. 2) This book talks chiefly about the three views of cognitive linguistics. It is important for you to make clear the three views first, because they are initiated by cognitive linguistics and therefore they are basic theories of cognitive linguistics. And then you should also go on to study iconicity, grammaticalization, lexical change and language teaching. Though iconicity and grammaticalization are not initiated by cognitive linguistics, many scholars are working at them because the two approaches can also explain many language problems. The last section of this book also talks about foreign language learning and teaching. For us, this section may be helpful. But until now, few people have discussed this topic, so what is presented in the last section of this book is just the potential of cognitive approach to foreign language teaching. We can benefit from the discussion about foreign language learning and teaching in this book so as to begin with our own researches of English teaching and learning. Exercises: What is cognitive linguistics? Whats the difference between the logical view and the experiential view? How do you understand the term attribute in cognitive linguistics? Talk about attributes of bicycle.

Course Description Essay

This course introduces the student to the essential elements of finance for business. Emphasis is placed on financial management, financial markets, and the tools, techniques, and methodologies used in making financial decisions. Topics include: Financial planning, working capital management, capital budgeting, long-term financing, and international finance. Policies Faculty and students/learners will be held responsible for understanding and adhering to all policies contained within the following two documents: University policies: You must be logged into the student website to view this document. Instructor policies: This document is posted in the Course Materials forum. University policies are subject to change. Be sure to read the policies at the beginning of each class. Policies may be slightly different depending on the modality in which you attend class. If you have recently changed modalities, read the policies governing your current class modality. Course Materials Mayo, H. B. (2012). Basic finance: An introduction to financial institutions, investments, and management (10th ed.). Mason, OH: South-Western. Titman, S., Keown, A. J., & Martin, J. D. (2011). Financial management: Principles and applications (11th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall. All electronic materials are available on the student website. Week One: Introduction to Finance and Analysis   

How London is Portrayed in Composed upon Westminster...

How London is Portrayed in Composed upon Westminster Bridge and London William Wordsworths poem, Composed upon Westminster Bridge written in 1904 looks at the positive side of London city and it natural Beauty. Whereas William Blake wrote the poem, London in 1794, the poem is negative towards authority and politics. The theme of the two poems is the city of London and how different people preserve it. All bright and glittering in the smokeless air (line 8) is a romantic view of the city of London. William Blakes perception is different. Marks of weakness, marks of woe (line 4) shows that London is corrupt and unhappy. The two poets, hence, have contrasting views of the city London. Wordsworth view is†¦show more content†¦William Wordsworth writes in prose opposed to William Blake who writes in structured negative verses. Earth (line 1) opposed to I Wonder onto each characterd street (line 1) are different, indicated by the punctuation mark The colon enables the writer to continue the and develop their ideas in the poem as colons are used generally to start a list or add explanations whereas a comma is used to develop an idea in more structure way in poetry, generally leading to a new line. William Wordsworth poem composed upon Westminster Bridge does not follow a rhyme scheme but William Blakes London poem follows a rhyme scheme. William Wordsworth poem flows trying to keep the romantic rhythm going whereas William Blakes is more sutured and following a rhyme scheme. Both poems are enriched with various language patterns that enhance our reading and improve on Wordsworth showing his feelings for London in a figurative way. This city morning (line 4/5) Blake uses a more abstract style using people and buildings of London to present the intentions they are associated with. How the chimney appals (line 9/10) Using personification, Wordsworths brings the city alive, taking the beauty of the morning. Blake uses imagery and alliteration to highlight the suffering of the citys people. He is attacking the Church. Wordsworth poem has a natural message of how a city can expand. He has no political messages. However, Blakes poemShow MoreRelatedComparing the Poets Use of Language To Present Their View of London in Composed Upon Westminster Bridge by Wordsworth and London by Blake1571 Words   |  7 PagesComparing the Poets Use of Language To Present Their View of London in Composed Upon Westminster Bridge by Wordsworth and London by Blake London was, is and undoubtedly always will be, a city of enormous interest and controversy, especially for those employed in the field of writing. The two poems, Composed Upon Westminster Bridge, 1802, by William Wordsworth and London, 1794, by William Blake, demonstrate this through their opposing views. The intention of both WilliamRead MoreComposed Upon Westminster Bridge by William Wordsworth Essay484 Words   |  2 PagesComposed Upon Westminster Bridge by William Wordsworth Poets often express great enthusiasm in their poetry. Show how Wordsworth does this in the poem. William Wordsworth expresses his feelings and views about the majestic morning view of London through this poem. He writes as though he appreciates the rare opportunity to see the real beauty of London. The poem gives you the feeling as if you were part of the poem or the author, sitting on Westminster Bridge admiringRead MoreWilliam Blake And William Wordsworth1099 Words   |  5 Pagesexperiences with nature to the reader. William Blake and William Wordsworth had two different perspectives when they portrayed London. William Blake was born and lived all of his life in London. He was very religious and politically-minded person. Blake s poem, London, is very negative because it is an expression of his sadness, anger and despair for the population of London. He puts London out to be disheartening, horrible, and very much in despair. He mentions that it is filled with depressed peopleRead MoreComparing Cities And Contrasting Cities2155 Words   |  9 Pagescould be in London on the Westminster Bridge overlooking the beautiful water and amazing architecture of the city watching time tick away, or, you could be in Chicago in the midst of the hustle and bustle, watching the hardworking people of a city with such energy and life live their lives. Or you could be in Knoxville Tennessee on a gorgeous warm, sunny summer day eating barbeque, ice cream and greens. This is the beauty about city poems. One day you could be in the beautiful city of London EnglandRead More Aspects of a Sonnet Essay2511 Words   |  11 Pagesanswers the question, or resolves the tension. The rhyme scheme for the sestet is cdecde. For instance, Wilfred Owen uses the first eight-lines to describe how deaths at war are laid to rest and the sestet to describe how the same thing is done back home (Anthem for Doomed Youth). The rhyme scheme for the sestet is cdecde. This is how the famous poet Francesco Petrarca, thus why it is named the Petrarchan Sonnet chose to write his sonnets. However William Shakespeare, a famous EnglishRead MoreOrganisational Theory230255 Words   |  922 PagesOrganizational Theory takes you on a joyful ride through the developments of one of the great enigmas of our time – How should we understand the organization? Jan Ole Similà ¤, Assistant Professor, Nord-Trà ¸ndelag University College, Norway I really enjoyed this new text and I am sure my students will enjoy it, too. It combines rigorous theoretical argument with application and consideration of how managment practice is formed and shaped by ideas and concepts. The authors have brought their wealth of experienceRead MoreCase Study148348 Words   |  594 Pages photocopying, recording, or otherwise without either the prior written permission of the Publishers or a licence permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd., Saffron House, 6-10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. This book may not be lent, resold, hired out or othe rwise disposed of by way of trade in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published, without the prior consent of the Publishers. 2  © Pearson Education LimitedRead MoreStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 PagesOrganizational Behavior EDITION 15 Stephen P. Robbins —San Diego State University Timothy A. Judge —University of Notre Dame i3iEi35Bj! Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal Toronto Delhi Mexico City Sao Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo Editorial Director: Sally Yagan Director of Editorial Services: Ashley Santora Acquisitions Editor: Brian Mickelson Editorial

The Pros And Cons Of Prostitution - 1225 Words

Prostitution is considered to be the oldest profession. Prostitution can take many forms, from streetwalkers and brothels, to sophisticated call-girl or escort services. However, in United States it is a crime to offer sexual acts in exchange for money. The laws regarding prostitution differ everywhere around the world. In some places, especially the United States, soliciting a prostitute is grounds for punishment and even criminalization (Prostitution). Many prostitutes are criminalized because of their work. Therefore in turn, they are usually victims of many crimes such as rape and assault. However, through the legalization of prostitution becoming a business, sex workers are less likely to be affected by crimes such as rape and†¦show more content†¦A major study was â€Å"Street Prostitution Zones and Crime.† This study was conducted by Paul Bisschop, Stephen Kastoryano, and Bas van der Klaauw. Paul Bisschop graduated from the University of Amsterdam majoring in economic research. Stephen Kastoryano obtained his undergraduate degrees from Northwestern University near Chicago and has a PhD at the Tinbergen Institute and the University of Amsterdam and is currently an assistant professor in Empirical Econometrics at the University of Mannheim. His research focuses mainly on identification problems in dynamic treatment effects models and on empirical crime work. Bas van der Klaauw is a professor of Economics at the VU University Amsterdam, The Netherlands. A team lead by Paul Bisschop of SEO Amsterdam Economics, a public research institute in The Netherlands, enquiries if dedicated prostitution zones affect crime and sexual violence in Dutch cities. The team found evidence of a 32 to 40 percent reduction in two years within a city opening a tippelzone. â€Å"The decreases in sexual abuse is stronger in cities with licensed tippelzones.† The authors believe the tippelzones lead â€Å"to a decrease in sexual violence on women more gene rally by providing an anonymous, appealing and easily accessible outlet for sex to otherwise violent individuals.† In a survey the authors cite, â€Å"95 percent of the interviewedShow MoreRelatedThe Pros And Cons Of Prostitution1061 Words   |  5 PagesProstitution is often classified as a â€Å"victimless crime,† however that is far from the truth especially within brothel walls. â€Å"An essential part of the brothel business model is to break the spirit of girls, through humiliation, rape, threats, and violence† (Kristof, 2009, p. 10). Violence comes to those women there on their own accord or those forced and trafficked. While legalizing prostitution could possibly allow for human trafficking to be monitored more closely, it feeds into the demandRead MoreThe Pros And Cons Of Prostitution1481 Words   |  6 PagesProstitution has always been a controversial topic not only in our country but all around the world. Although its been said to be the oldest profession, the social stigma that comes with it makes it taboo. Despite these disapproving views, the majority of individuals in prostitution turn to it in desperate need of money. This negative connotation that comes with prostitution is most likely derived from the thought that sex is an immoral act. Society in this country is slowly becoming more acceptingRead MoreThe Pros And Cons Of Prostitution1098 Words   |  5 Pages from a state to the other, prostitution is an integral part of society. Prostitution is often referred as the world oldest profession (Forrest). For thousands and thousands years, humans have been exchanging money or material goods for sex. Throughout mankind History, set of laws has been put in place with the purpose of controlling and regulating its practice. But, it has never appeared to prevail over its illegal operations. According to the dictionary prostitution is by definition the practiceRead MoreThe Pros And Cons Of Prostitution767 Words   |  4 PagesSt. James put forward The American Prostitutes Rights Movement. This movements goal was to decriminalize prostitution and free women in their sexual roles. The union of women recognized that prostitutes had the choice to do what they wanted with their bodies (The Red Menace). These woman have rights too and this is also why prostitution needs to be legalized. Another example of prostitution being a choice is from a sex worker herself, We chose sex work after we did a lot of things we couldnt standRead MoreThe Pros and Cons of Illegal Prostitution1448 Words   |  6 PagesIt’s called the oldest profession in the world, but despite its longevity in almost every society and culture, sex work is illegal in most places. Research suggests that the decriminalization of prostitution would be beneficial because it would reduce the danger posed to sex workers, stop imposing a civil law on a morally wrong activity when sex is consensual, and provide the government a tax income instead of a legal expense. One of the first things that comes to mind when thinking about sex workersRead MoreLegalizing Prostitution: The Pros and Cons Essay770 Words   |  4 PagesProstitution is one of the most controversial subjects in the United States. There are many pros and cons to this subject. First, Prostitution shouldn’t be a crime because it is a victimless crime. 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If all of these are the most basic to humanRead MoreProstitution: Should A Change Be Made? Essay775 Words   |  4 PagesProstitution: Should A Change Be Made? Prostitution is often called the world’s oldest profession. By definition, it is â€Å"the practice or occupation of engaging in sexual activity with someone for payment.† It has been around since the first civilizations of Mesopotamia and isn’t going anywhere. Prostitution is also one of the most controversial topics in todays modern society. There is a wide variety of different pros and cons related to this subject. With these pros and cons come supporters andRead MoreThere Are 25 Different Types Of Prostitution1553 Words   |  7 PagesYes, there are 25 different types of Prostitution. Street Prostitution is what we see every day and night in the USA. I see nothing wrong with prostitution cause it is a job. I see women out there trying to make a living for themselves and their kids. As long as the prostitution , clients are not hurting or causing any problems for others than let them be. I don’t think clients or the female working should be doing any kind of solicted on the streets, parks, or other public places. I feel that ourRead MoreWhat is Prostitution?1838 Words   |  7 Pages According to the 2014 Merriam-Webster dictionary, prostitution is defined as â€Å"the act of having sex in exchange for money† (â€Å"Prostitution†). In the United States, the trafficking of sex sales has been illegal since the early 1900’s, with the exception of the 49th state, Alaska (Head). The trade was deemed unethical by the Women’s Christian Temperance Union, also credited with the ban of drug use and the elimination of alcohol in the 1920’s. Today, in all but two states, the buying and selling of

Cosmetic Plastic Surgery Is Beyond Physical For Many Patients

Cosmetic plastic surgery is beyond physical for many patients. Notably, people will consult with a plastic surgeon in efforts to reshape and improve the appearance of a number of things such as their breasts, abdomen, facial features, hair, the list goes on. Ultimately, the end goal for both the patient and the surgeon is for the recipient of the cosmetic procedure to have an improved appearance. Granted that plastic surgery is used to improve one’s appearance. self-esteem is directly linked with how one feels about their physical appearance. Therefore, undergoing plastic surgery to improve one’s appearance will help their self-esteem. Communication throughout the entire surgical process is essential. In order for both parties to be satisfied with the end results, communication should most definitely be a priority. Plastic surgery has been used for over 4,000 years, and continues to be improved today. India had some of the very first recorded reconstructive procedures, which included skin grafts and nose reconstructions. In ancient India, these surgeries were used to repair those who were injured in battle or had their nose cut off as punishment. For instance, Indian physician, Sushruta, who wrote the encyclopedia Sanskrit, provided instructions on performing procedures such as an earlobe or nose reconstruction using a skin graft from a cheek or forehead (DocShop, 2015). Reconstructive surgery techniques continued to improve, many great advances in medicine were made byShow MoreRelatedCosmetic Surgery : Surgery And Surgery Essay1074 Words   |  5 PagesCosmetic surgery is unlikely to change your life; it just changes your outward appearance to others. Cosmetic surgery can be very successful, but it is not risk-free; even though laser cosmetic surgery poses fewer risks than invasive surgery. 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High School Educational System in Contrast Free Essays

Name: Lily High School Educational System in Contrast between Canada and China With the development of a progressive and civilized society, education becomes a greater priority. In separate countries, there are distinct differences in the systems and methods by which education is practiced. The Canadian secondary school educational system is different from the Chinese education system in four main areas: the subjects offered for study, requirements for graduation, the authority of the teachers and the physical aspects of the institutions. We will write a custom essay sample on High School Educational System in Contrast or any similar topic only for you Order Now The first obvious difference in the education system between Canada and China is in the subjects that are offered for study. In China, there are two systems for students to choose in high school: a departmental system consisting of liberal arts and science. The students who choose liberal arts will study Mandarin, English, History, Mathematics, Politics, and Geography. For those who choose science, the preferred courses will be Chinese, English, Mathematics, Biology, Physics and Chemistry. According to BC Ministry of Education (2008), in Canada, there are two ways for students to choose: required and elective courses. For instance, required courses are planning, language arts, mathematics, fine arts and applied skills, social studies, science and physical education and are offered as the students only choices. Furthermore, elective courses have more flexible options. Surely, choosing any courses that interest students is important, as long as their electives are over twenty eight cre dits. The second difference between China and Canada is in the requirements for graduation. In China, students have to take college entrance examinations, which are the most important academic exams in China. In addition, students will receive placings that are arranged from the higher to the lower grades. The marks they get will influence whether they are able to graduate, to repeat the courses or to leave school and enter the workforce as only partially skilled. Conversely, in Canada, the requirements for graduation are easier than they are for students in China. Students in Canada are required to obtain just forty eight credits from the required courses, twenty eight credits from the elective courses, as well as four credits from graduation transitions (BC Ministry of Education, 2008)2. Other noticeable differences between Canada and China involve issues of the authority possessed by teachers. In China, teachers are like parents, in contrast, teachers are more like friends or mentors in Canada. Chinese teachers always emphasize the importance of rote learning and the value of marks. However, Canadian teachers give students more freedom and offer the opportunity to develop their interests. Furthermore, Chinese teachers are much stricter than Canadian teachers. Sometimes, a teacher in China can punish a student by assaulting them, which is due to the fact that teachers in China are held as being above question, while by law. Canadian teachers are not allowed to physically attack their students in any way. (Farran, S. , 2009)3 The final distinct area of difference between Canada and China is the physical aspects of the learning environments. For instance, the sizes of the classes in China usually are composed of approximately sixty people, but classes in Canada normally are a maximum of about thirty people. Statutory holidays are different, too. Chinese students are free from January to February for one month to celebrate Spring Festival and in July and August for two months because of the extremely hot weather. Canadian students are free during a part of December to celebrate Christmas during Winter Break, and this holiday is usually about three weeks without school. In China, students have to go to school in the evening to study; however, Canadian students have the choice of taking extra classes or tuition, but this is optional. In conclusion, the subjects offered for study, the requirements for graduation, the authority of the teachers and the physical aspects of the institutions are the main contrasts between the Canadian and the Chinese secondary school educational systems. Education is an essential component of a successful and potentially prosperous life, and a definitive part of the core competency of a nation. Therefore, how to form a more innovative yet completely effective system of education requires constant exploration, development and implementation of methods that maintain high standards and improve to the highest quality for the students of the world’s future. Reference: 1 BC Ministry of Education (2008). At a Glance Requirements – What You Need to Graduate. Retrieved 2012, from BC Ministry of Education 2 BC Ministry of Education (2008). At a Glance Requirements – What You Need to Graduate. Retrieved 2012, from BC Ministry of Education 3Farran, S. (2009). CAN HIGH SCHOOL GRADES BE TRUSTED?. MacLean’s, 122(44), 92-96 How to cite High School Educational System in Contrast, Essay examples

Acute Care Nursing for Eventual Development- myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theAcute Care Nursing for Eventual Development. Answer: The main cause behind the development of liver cirrhosis by Mr Nathan James is his hepatitis C infection which he had encountered 10 years ago. This is because, according to the reports published by Chen and Morgan (2006), chronic hepatitis C is the leading cause of chronic liver disease and liver cirrhosis. Chen and Morgan (2006) have further opined that nearly one third of the chronically ill patient of hepatitis C develops progressive liver injury followed by fibrosis and eventual development of liver cirrhosis over a period of 20 to 30 years. Approximately 75 to 85% of hepatitis C virus infected individual will progress towards chronic hepatitis C infection and these individuals are more susceptible towards developing extrahepatic manifestations along with compensated and decompensated liver cirrhosis (Chen Morgan, 2006). The main risk factor which further made Mr Nathan James susceptible towards developing liver cirrhosis is consumption of alcohol. According to the case study, Mr James used to consume 2 cans of beer per day. Alcohol is the main contributing risk factor behind the development of liver cirrhosis or is also responsible for developing alcohol-induced liver cirrhosis (Askgaard et al.2015). However, from the case study, it is still not clear whether Mr Nathan James have developed alcoholic or non-alcoholic liver disease. Askgaard et al. (2015) have opined that regular drinking tendency or the pattern of drinking is associated with the development of liver cirrhosis. The liver cirrhosis has hampered both the physical and mental state of Mr James. In the physiological parameter, it can be easily detected from the case study that he is spitting blood stained sputum along with weight loss and loss of appetite. Mr James has also developed certain unexplained scars over his arms along with distended abdomen, oedema in the ankles and mild jaundice. In the mental scale, Mr James irritated. Apart from Mr James, his family will also get affect. According to Golics et al. (2013), there is a significant impact on the quality of life of the members of family with patients of chronic disease. The family members of the patients experience worriedness, frustration and stress such that the members of the family are more emotionally affected by illness in comparison to the patient (Golics et al. 2013). Signs and Symptoms Pathophysiology Spitting blood stained sputum The liver an important role in blood coagulation. Coagulation defects arising out of liver disease predispose to an increased bleeding tendency. This bleeding is manifested via excretion of blood stained sputum. However, the sputum is not arising out of pulmonary infection and hence no chest pain or shortness of breath is experienced Loss of appetite The main pathophysiological mechanisms behind the clinical conditions that is responsible for the development of loss of appetite among the cirrhotic patients like Mr Nathan James is an ill-balanced metabolic state of the body. The reason behind this is multiple factors which intertwine and thus giving rise of loss of appetite as primary manifestation. Some of the important factors responsible for loss of appetite and subsequent malnourishment include inadequate offer of nutrients, diminished synthetic capacity of the hepatic cells, hypermetabolic state and impaired absorption of nutrients from the hepatic cells in blood. Odemain ankles and distended abdomen The most acceptable theory for behind accumulation of fluid as ascites is peripheral arterial vasodilation. This leads to under filling of circulatory volume. This in turn up-regulates baroreceptor-mediated activation of sympathetic nervous system, renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and nonosmotic synthesis of vasopressin to restore integrity of the circulatiry system. The result of this is highwater-sodium retentionwhich is identified as preascitic state. This condition simultaneously evolvesas fluid retention or ascites, as the liver disease gradually progresses towards worse. Irritability Liver helps in the clearance of the toxic particles from the body. In case of liver malfunction the toxic particles from the body is not removed adequately and this give rise to irritability. Mild Jaundice Bilirubin is generated in reticulo-endothelial cells via the breakdown of haemoglobin. The sequence of biochemical events isas follows: haemoglobin haematin protporphyrin biliverdin bilirubin. Bilirubin released from reticulo-endothelial cells into the body fluid in unconjugated or unconjugated form. This free bilirubin is then conjugated with proteins like albumin or alpha globulin and remains in that conjugated form and is not excreted out of body via kidneys. It is the role of the liver to break protein bound bilirubin into water soluble form via conjugating the same with glucuronide or sulphate ions which is then excreted via kidneys. In liver cirrhosis, liver starts malfunctioning and thus adequate excretion of bilirubin via kidneys is hampered. Extra bilirubin gets deposited in the body leading to jaundice. (Source: Tsochatzis, Bosch Burroughs, 2014) Corticosteroid is one of the most popular choices for treating the patient with alcohol induced liver cirrhosis. Corticosteroid acts via reducing the secretion of the inflammatory cytokines like intercellular adhesion molecule 1, tumour necrosis factor- (TNF-), IL-8 and interlukin (IL)-6. Corticosteroid like gluco-corticoid inhibits the initial events occurring in an inflammatory response. Gluco-corticoid inhibits vasodilatation via increasing the vascular permeability that occurs after the inflammatory insult and thus they decrease the migration of leukocyte towards the site of inflammation (MathurinBataller, 2015). Thus cortico-steroid or gluco-corticosteroid is effective in treating liver cirrhosis because according to Dirchwolf and Ruf (2015), systemic inflammation and deregulation of the immune system are two most important pathological pathways of the disease development. Here systemic inflammation is mediated via activation of innate and adaptive immune cells which results in increase production of inflammatory and pro-inflammatory cytokines.Mathurin andBataller (2015)is of the opinion that upon administration of glucocorticoid, blood neutrophil leucocytosis reaches the pick along with the decrease in the blood serum concentration of monocytes, lymphocytes and esoniophills. Neutrophil leucocytosis inhibits the ability of neutrophil to accumulate at the site of inflammation and thereby reducing inflammatory response(MathurinBataller, 2015). According to colchicine reduces acute injury of liver via inhibiting collagen secretion and increasing collagen degradation and thus decreasing the rate of liver fibrosis. According to Morgan et al. (2017), long term treatment of liver cirrhosis via colchicine does not decrease the overall mortality or mortality specific to liver among the patients who are in their advanced stage. The comprehensive impact of colchicine on morbidity of liver disease is marginal. However, treatment with colchicine, a mitotic spindle inhibitor is associated with decrease incidence of upper gastro-intestinal bleeding, hepatic encephalopathy and spontaneous bacterial peritonitis. The clinical significance behind the lower incidence of less gynecomastia, erythma and edema among the patients who are under colchicine treatment is unclear(Morgan et al., 2017). Colchicine however, helps to reduce the number of hospitalization, reduced rate of occurrence of hepatorenal syndrome. But the process by which colchic ine reduces hepatorenal syndrome is also not known till now (Morgan et al., 2017). According to Aron-Wisnewsky et al. (2012)oxygen saturation of patient must be in between 90 to 100% but in case of Mr Nathan James, the SpO2: 88% on RA and 95% on 6L through Hudson mask. The first nursing intervention will be to keep the oxygen saturation steady via continuation of titrated oxygen supply via Hudson mask or via the application of nasal canula. Proper oxygen saturation will also help to reduce the risk or chronicity of tachypnoia. Aron-Wisnewsky et al. (2012) have opined that patients of liver cirrhosis has a tendency to suffer from hypoxia and low amount of oxygen in blood of Mr James is the indication towards hypoxic conditions and hence external supply of oxygen will helpful to increase the oxygen saturation with the body. Second nursing intervention, which must be done with 24 hours of emergency department admission include intravenous injection of Lasix to Mr James. Lasix is furosemide that is administered in order to reduce fluid within the body (oedema) caused via conditions like liver disease, heart failure and kidney disease (Qavi, Kamal Schrier, 2015). Furosemide can also be define as water pill that helps in the formation of more urine and thereby reducing excess fluid content of the body(Qavi, Kamal Schrier, 2015). Administration of Lasix will help in reducing the symptoms of Mr James like poor oxygen saturation, swelling of the lower extremity of foot (ankles) and distended abdomen. However, administration of Lasix should only be done after the approval from the medical practitioner (doctor). According to the reports published by Thapaliya et al. (2013), administration of Lasix have been found to provide positive results with patients of liver cirrhosis and who is suffering from ascites and p ortal hypertension. Immediate observance of fluid restricted diet (1500 ml) as per the orders coming from the medical officer is third most important nursing intervention that must be employed immediately after admission in emergency department. Along with fluid restricted diet, the output of urine should be measured after each shift. This is because, according to the recent report, renal dysfunction is the most common problem with the patients suffering from advanced liver disease like liver cirrhosis(Runyon, 2013). More specifically, alterations in the physiology of renal system in advanced to acute liver failure or liver cirrhosis with ascites can predispose patients to a specific form of renal problems(Runyon, 2013). Mr James has already displayed the signs and symptom of ascites for example distended stomach hence observance of fluid restricted diet will help lower retention of fluid inside the body and measurement of the urine output will help to ascertain the condition of the kidneys. Another immediate nursing intervention include blood test for the detection of bilirubin content in blood as Mr Jamess sclera show evidence of mild jaundice. According to Wang et al. (2012) since cirrhosis, is the disease of liver, occurrence of jaundice is a common phenomenon and hence detection of serum bilirubin will help to get a rough overview about the condition of the liver. References Aron-Wisnewsky, J., Minville, C., Tordjman, J., Lvy, P., Bouillot, J. L., Basdevant, A., ...Ppin, J. L. (2012). Chronic intermittent hypoxia is a major trigger for non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in morbid obese.Journal of hepatology,56(1), 225-233. Askgaard, G., Grnbk, M., Kjr, M. S., Tjnneland, A., Tolstrup, J. S. (2015).Alcohol drinking pattern and risk of alcoholic liver cirrhosis: a prospective cohort study.Journal of hepatology,62(5), 1061-1067. Chen, S.L. Morgan, T.R. (2006).The natural history of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection.International journal of medical sciences,3(2), p.47. Dirchwolf, M., Ruf, A. E. (2015).Role of systemic inflammation in cirrhosis: From pathogenesis to prognosis.World journal of hepatology,7(16), 1974. Golics, C. J., Basra, M. K. A., Salek, M. S., Finlay, A. Y. (2013).The impact of patients chronic disease on family quality of life: an experience from 26 specialties.International journal of general medicine,6, 787. Mathurin, P., Bataller, R. (2015).Trends in the management and burden of alcoholic liver disease.Journal of hepatology,62(1), S38-S46. Morgan, T. R., Weiss, D. G., Nemchausky, B., Schiff, E. R., Anand, B., Simon, F., ...Lieber, C. (2017). Colchicine treatment of alcoholic cirrhosis: a randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial of patient survival.Gastroenterology,128(4), 882-890. Qavi, A. H., Kamal, R., Schrier, R. W. (2015).Clinical use of diuretics in heart failure, cirrhosis, and nephrotic syndrome.International journal of nephrology,2015. Runyon, B. A. (2013). Introduction to the revised American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases Practice Guideline management of adult patients with ascites due to cirrhosis 2012.Hepatology,57(4), 1651-1653. Thapaliya, K., Bhandary, A., Basnet, S., Aryal, B. (2013).Clinical status of furosemide on liver cirrhosis with portal hypertension and ascites.Journal of Chitwan Medical College,3(1), 65-66. Tsochatzis, E. A., Bosch, J., Burroughs, A. K. (2014).Liver cirrhosis.The Lancet,383(9930), 1749-1761. Wang, X., Zhang, A., Han, Y., Wang, P., Sun, H., Song, G., ...Xie, N. (2012). Urine metabolomics analysis for biomarker discovery and detection of jaundice syndrome in patients with liver disease.Molecular Cellular Proteomics,11(8), 370-380.